Cannae Read online

  13. E.g. Lazenby (1978), pp. 79–80, Connolly (1981), pp. 184–187, and Delbrück (1975), pp. 325–327.

  14. Greek practice of putting bravest in the front and rear ranks, see Xenophon, Mem. 3. 19, Aescepiodotus, Tactics 14. 6; on the role of the optio see M. Speidel, The Framework of an Imperial Legion (Cardiff, 1992), pp. 24–26.

  15. Delbrück (1975), p. 325.

  16. Trebia, Polybius 3. 74. 3–6; Trasimene, Polybius 84. 3–7; Roman emphasis on bia Polybius 1. 37. 7–10.

  17. At Metaurus in 207 BC the consul C. Claudius Nero controlled the right, the praetor L. Porcius Licinus the centre and the other consul M. Livius Drusus Salinator the left, in spite of the fact that the battle was fought under his command, Livy 27. 98.

  18. Crossing the river in two columns, Polybius 3. 113. 6.

  19. Polybius 3. 114. 4.

  20. Zama, Polybius 15. 9. 1–11. 12, Livy 30. 32. 1–33. 11.

  21. Ecnomus as the model for Cannae see W. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments (Cambridge, 1930), p. 165, J. Thiel, A History of Roman Sea-power Before the Second Punic War (Amsterdam, 1954), pp. 120–121, and Walbank 1 (1970), p. 87, as well as the refutation of this view in J. Lazenby, The First Punic War (London, 1996), pp. 94–95 and p. 185, n. 20.

  22. Ennius Fragment 282.

  23. Polybius 3. 115. 1, Livy 22. 47. 1. On missile ranges see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 183–190.

  24. For an example of a protracted skirmish resulting in few fatalities and no decisive result, Josephus Bellum Judaicum 3. 150–154; studies of twentieth century combat, see S.L.A. Marshall, Men Against Fire (New York, 1947), esp. pp. 51–54, 65.

  25. Telamon, Polybius 2. 30. 1–4; Galatia, 189 BC, Livy 38. 21; for the supposed reform of 211 and the poor quality of Roman skirmishers before this date, see M. Samuels, ‘The Reality of Cannae’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 47 (1990), pp. 7–31.

  26. Livy 22. 49. 1.

  27. Polybius 3. 115. 2–4, Livy 22. 47. 1–3; for a discussion of cavalry combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 235–244.

  28. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 16, Livy 22. 49. 2–5, Appian Hann. 24.

  29. Ticinus, Polybius 3. 65. 5–11; infantry interspersed with cavalry, Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1. 48, 7. 36, 7. 80, Bellum Civile 2. 34, 3. 75, 3. 84, African War 20, 61, 78, and discussion in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 242–244.

  30. Livy 22. 47. 3.

  31. Polybius 3. 116. 5, Livy 22. 48. 1–4, Appian, Hann. 20, 22–23.

  32. Noise, Polybius 1. 34. 2, 15. 12. 8; importance of appearance, Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 2. 21, Plutarch, Lucullus 27. 5 and discussion in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 192–197.

  33. Polybius 3. 114. 2–4, 115. 5–7, Livy 22. 46. 5–6, 47. 4–5; Germans, Tacitus Germania 3.

  34. Gaesatae, Polybius 2. 28. 8, 29. 7–9.

  35. On the range of the pilum, see J. Vechère de Reffyre, ‘Les Armes d’Alise’, RA 2 (1864), p. 342, and M. Junkelmann, Die Legionen des Augustus (Mainz, 1991), p. 188; Josephus Bellum Judaicum 3. 259, 266, 4. 20. For a detailed study of the use of missiles by Roman infantry see A. Zhmodikov, ‘Roman Republican Heavy Infantrymen in Battle (IV–II centuries BC), Historia 49. 1 (2000), pp. 67–78, and also the comments in Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 192–201.

  36. For discussions of infantry combat see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 191–227, and see P. Sabin, ‘The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War’, in Cornell, Rankov and Sabin (1996), pp. 59–79, esp. 64–73; for a detailed discussion of the most extensive set of grave finds see B. Thordeman, Armour from the Battle of Wisby 1361. vols. 1–2 (Stockholm, 1939), esp. vol. 1, pp. 94–95, 160–194.

  37. Hoplite warfare see V. Hanson, The Western Way of War (New York, 1989), J. Lazenby, ‘The Killing Zone’, in V. Hanson (ed.), Hoplites (New York, 1991), pp. 87–109, and A. Goldsworthy, ‘ The Othismos, Myths and Heresies’, War in History 4 (1997), pp. 1–26.

  38. Plutarch, Cato the Elder 1; multiple head wounds, see M. Wheeler, Maiden Castle, Dorset (1943), p. 352 as well as Thordeman (1939) passim.

  39. Centurions, Polybius 6. 24. 9; senior officers at Cannae, Polybius 3. 116. 1–4, Livy 22. 49. 2. For a detailed discussion of the role of Roman commanders at a later period see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 149–163.

  40. Livy 22. 47. 5–6.

  41. For a full discussion of casualties see Appendix 2.

  42. Polybius 3. 115. 6.

  43. Polybius 3. 115. 8–10, Livy 22. 47. 7–10.

  44. Polybius 3. 116. 5–8, Livy 22. 48. 5–6.

  45. E.g. B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), p. 139, Lazenby (1978), p. 84, Connolly (1981), p. 188. For a vivid attempt to reconstruct this final phase see V. Hanson, ‘Cannae’, in R. Cowley (ed.) Experience of War (New York, 1992), pp. 42–49.

  46. E.g. Connolly (1981), p. 187.

  47. On the proper behaviour for soldiers and commanders in defeat see N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990).

  48. Ranks packed too densely so that the men in front could not retreat were always a source of especially high casualties, e.g. Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 5. 43, Tacitus, Annals 2. 20, 14. 37, Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 3. 271–275.

  49. Death of Paullus, Polybius 3. 116. 9, Livy 22. 49. 6–12, cf. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 16.

  50. Polybius 3. 117. 1–6, Livy 22. 49. 13–50. 3, 52. 6; for a full discussion see Appendix 2.

  CHAPTER 5

  1. Livy 22. 51. 5–9; for British casualties on the Somme see M. Middlebrook, The First Day of the Somme (London, 1971), pp. 262–264 and also see Appendix 2.

  2. Livy 22. 50. 4–12, 52. 4, and for the lower estimate see Frontinus, Strategemata 4. 5. 7.

  3. Polybius 3. 117. 7–12, Livy 22. 52. 1–6.

  4. Polybius 3. 117. 2, Livy 22. 50. 3, 52. 7–53. 13.

  5. Livy 22. 54. 1–6.

  6. Livy 22. 54. 7–56. 8, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 17–18.

  7. Livy 22. 51. 1–4.

  8. For useful surveys of the evidence and arguments claiming that it was never Hannibal’s intention to attack Rome see J. Lazenby, Hannibal’s War (Warminster, 1978), pp. 85–86, and “Was Hannibal Right?”, in T. Cornell, B. Rankov and P. Sabin (edd.) The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, BICS Supplement 67 (London, 1996), 39–48, and also H. Delbrück (trans. J. Renfroe), History of the Art of War 1 (Nebraska, 1975), pp. 336–344; for arguments based on logistics see J. Shean, ‘Hannibal’s Mules: The Logistical Limitations of Hannibal’s Army and the Battle of Cannae, 216 BC’, Historia 45 (1996), pp. 159–187.

  9. Livy 26. 11. 6.

  10. Livy 22. 58. 1–61. 15.

  11. See A. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars (London, 2000), pp. 216–219, and B.D. Hoyos “Hannibal: What Kind of Genius?”, Greece and Rome 30 (1983), pp. 171–180, esp. 177–178; use of negotiations over casualties to initiate peace talks see Livy 33. 11–12.

  12. N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990), pp. 139–140, Livy 22. 57. 10–12, 61. 14–5, 23. 14. 1–4.

  13. Livy 22. 53. 7–9; refusal to negotiate with Pyrrhus, Plutarch, Pyrrhus 18–20.

  14. For general accounts of the war after Cannae see Lazenby (1978), p. 87+, B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), p. 140, and Goldsworthy (2000), p. 219; for Postumius’ defeat see Polybius 3. 118. 6, Livy 23. 24. 6–13.

  15. Livy 23. 12. 1–2.

  16. Livy 39. 51.

  Index

  Aegates Islands, Battle of, 10

  Aemilianus, Scipio, 4, 59

  Aemilius Paullus, Lucius. See Paullus, Lucius Aemilius

  Africans, 1, 49–50, 115, 121–122

  alae (wings)

  deployment, 107, 117–118

  organization of, 42–43

  preparation for battle, 90

  size, 103, 105–106, 109

  Albinus, Lucius Postumius, 70, 199

  Antiochus III, King, 14–15

  Appian, 4, 142

  Apulia, 77, 99

  Arretium, 25

  Atilius, Lucius, 180

  Atilius Regulus, Marcus, 32, 77, 80

  Au
fidius, River

  Hannibal’s army’s position by, 86, 91

  Roman army’s position by, 84, 86, 89, 96–104, 114–115

  topography, 81, 127, 174

  Balearic slingers, 48, 51, 131

  Barcid family, 12, 53

  See also Hamilcar; Hannibal; Hasdrubal

  battles, ancient

  conventions of war, 197–198

  hand-to-hand combat, 152–162

  keeping troops in order, 162–164

  mutual consent, 29–30

  shouting, 146, 152

  skirmish combats, 127–130

  spears and javelins, 147–150

  swords and shields, 154–160

  Bibaculus, Lucius Furius, 180–181

  Bibulus, Lucius Publicius, 186

  Bithynia, 203

  Boii, 68

  Busa, 186

  caetrati, 50, 131

  Cannae, Battle of

  casualties, 1, 179–181, 184

  cavalry clash on wings, 132–144

  charge to contact, 151–166

  defeat of Romans, 173–181

  encirclement of Roman forces, 166–173

  Hannibal’s offer to negotiate with Romans, 193

  historians’ location of battlefield, 93–103, 94–95 (map)

  historical perspective, 1, 204–206

  initial deployment of Hannibal’s army, 119–126

  initial deployment of Roman army, 103–118

  opening moves, 126–144

  phase 1 (map), 133

  phases 2-5 (maps), 140–141

  pre-battle maneuvering, 84–86

  Roman center’s advance, 144–151

  Romans’ reaction to defeat at Cannae, 194–197

  Romans’ unusual formation, 135, 168

  Rome’s refusal to negotiate, 196

  terms of surrender, 185–186

  Cannae, town of, 78, 81

  Canusium, 78, 99, 185–187, 194

  Carthage, 3, 7–11, 16, 46, 47, 203

  Carthalo, 193, 196

  Cato the Elder, 158

  cavalry, Hannibal’s

  Africans, 49–50

  attack on Roman rear, 172–175

  clash on wings, 132–144

  comparison to Roman cavalry, 54–55

  deployment at Cannae, 120, 125

  Gallic tribes, 51–54

  pursuit of fleeing Romans, 173

  size of, 119

  Spanish, 50–51, 119

  cavalry, Roman

  casualties, 180–181

  comparison to Hannibal’s cavalry, 54–55

  dismounting during battle, 136–138

  equipment, 36–37

  formation at Cannae, 106–107

  retreat of, 139, 142

  size of, 103–104

  survivors of Cannae, 186

  use of four-horned saddle, 37, 136

  vulnerability, 116–117

  weaknesses of, 29

  Celtiberians, 47, 143

  Celts, 1, 125, 152, 166, 169. See also Gauls

  Centenius, Gaius, 27, 104

  Cisalpine Gaul, 70, 73, 74, 119

  Claudius, Appius, 186

  cohorts, 42, 121

  Connolly, Peter, 102

  consuls

  dispute between consuls, 72–73, 82

  election of, 41

  equality of power, 28

  joining forces, 44

  leadership roles, 19, 70

  cornicen, 37

  decurions, 37, 44

  Delbrück, Hans, 98, 114

  dictators, 44

  Ebro, River, 13

  elephants, 15, 23–24, 48

  extraordinarii, 43, 83

  Fabius Maximus, Quintus, 28–33, 68, 73, 75, 188

  Falaise Gap, Battle of, 206

  falcata, 50

  First Punic War, 9–10, 15

  Flaminius, Gaius, 25–27, 58, 68

  Gaul, 20–21 (maps), 58

  Gauls

  absorption into Hannibal’s army, 19, 24, 52–54

  at Battle of Cannae, 120–125, 134, 138, 145–146, 151, 164–166, 175

  battles with Romans, 65

  recruitment of, 119

  weapons, 51

  Geminus. See Servilius Geminus

  Gerunium, 31, 67, 77

  Gisgo, 81

  Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, 195

  Hamilcar Barca, 10–12, 14, 50

  hand-to-hand combat, 152–162

  Hannibal Barca

  battlefield selection, 79–80

  capture of Seguntum, 13

  capture of town of Cannae, 78

  character, 18

  devastation of Italian countryside, 26, 30

  exile and death, 203

  failure to proceed from Cannae to Rome, 189–192

  hatred of Rome, 14–15

  leadership ability, 14, 206

  march to Italy, 18–19, 20–21 (maps), 22–23

  marriage, 50

  other military successes in Italy, 23–24, 57–58, 198–199, 201

  plan for war on Rome, 15–17

  as tactician, 2, 206

  war in Italy after Cannae, 198–203

  See also Cannae, Battle of

  Hannibal’s army

  Balearic slingers, 48, 51, 131

  cavalry, 49–50

  Celtiberians, 47, 143

  Celts, 1, 125, 152, 166, 169

  comparison to Roman army, 54–55

  diversity of, 46–48, 52

  equipment, 49–51

  experience and discipline, 53

  Ligurians, 47, 48

  Numidians, 49–50, 119–120, 123–124, 143

  skirmishers, 49, 50

  See also Cannae, Battle of; Gauls; Libyans; Spanish troops

  Hanno, 124, 199

  Hasdrubal Barca

  cavalry charge against Roman cavalry, 134, 139, 142, 172

  control of men at Cannae, 204

  defeat in Italy, 201

  marriage, 50, 124

  pursuit of fleeing Romans, 175, 201

  as son-in-law of Hamilcar, 12

  as squadron commander at Cannae, 50

  treaty with Rome, 13

  hastati, 37–40, 107–108, 110, 151, 164–165

  Herdonea, Battle of, 201

  History of Rome from the Foundation on the City (Livy), 4

  human sacrifice, 195

  Illyrian War, 60

  infantry, Roman

  attack on Punic center, 169–171

  casualties, 180–181

  deployment formation, 40, 43

  depth of, 114

  encirclement of, 173

  method of attack, 144

  organization of, 37, 39

  reliance on, 122–123

  size of, 66, 103, 109, 130

  skirmish combats, 122–123, 127–128

  training, 132

  Varro’s unusual formation of, 106, 168

  Insubres, 68

  Josephus, 148

  Kromayer, J., 100

  legions

  cavalry of, 43

  derivation of term, 35–36

  disciplinary system, 45

  equipment, 38

  fighting stance of legionaries, 155–156

  initial deployment at Cannae, 103–113

  leaving camp, 89–90

  number of legions at Cannae, 65–71

  organization of, 37, 40–41

  size, 39–40

  as temporary units, 67

  Lehmann, Konrad, 98, 114

  Lentulus, Cnaeus, 178

  Liby-Phoenicians, 48

  Libyans

  attack on Roman flanks, 170–171

  deployment at Cannae, 121–123

  hand-to-hand fighting at Cannae, 175–176

  as indigenous Cartagenians, 8

  reliability of, 48–49

  Ligurians, 47, 48

  Livy, account by

  as author of History of Rome from the Foundation of the City, 4

  casualties, 179–1
81

  Fabius’s strategy, 32

  Hannibal’s failure to proceed to Rome, 188–190

  on Paullus, 132, 137

  resistance by Gallic and Spanish infantry, 164–165

  Roman “scorched earth” tactic, 73–74

  size of Roman army, 66–67

  sources, 4

  on Varro, 60–61

  Varro and Paullus’ relationship, 72–73

  Macedonian Wars, 3, 202

  Magister Equitum (Master of Horse), 28, 69, 180, 195

  Mago Barca

  defeat in northern Italy, 201

  deployment at Cannae, 124

  as Hannibal’s brother, 53

  responsibilities at Cannae, 162, 175

  return to Carthage, 199

  Maharbal, 124, 189

  maniples

  at Cannae, 169, 171, 173–174, 205

  formation, 107–108, 110

  gaps between, 110, 144, 167

  organization, 37, 39–40, 42

  training, 46

  Varro’s changes in formation, 107–108

  Varro’s deployment of, 168

  Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, 70, 195

  Master of Horse (Magister Equitum), 28, 69, 180, 195

  Matho, Marcus Pomponius, 70

  Maximus, Fabius. See Fabius Maximus, Quintus

  Mercenary War, 11, 47

  Metellus, Marcus Caecilius, 187

  Minucius Rufus, Marcus, 28, 31, 44, 68, 69, 180

  Monomachus, Hannibal, 18

  Montgomery, Bernard L., 189

  novus homo (new man), 25, 60, 62, 64

  Numidians

  deployment at Cannae, 120, 123–124

  harassment of Roman camp, 86–87, 92

  number of in Hannibal’s army, 119

  tactics, 49–50, 143

  oath taken by soldiers, 69

  Octavius, Cnaeus, 185

  optio/optiones, 37, 113

  Paullus, Lucius Aemilius

  dismounting from horse in battle, 136–137

  dispute with Varro, 59–60

  election as leader of Roman army, 58, 62

  favorable treatment by Polybius, 59

  leader of citizen cavalry, 117

  leadership actions, 162, 167

  pre-battle maneuvering, 84–85

  pursuit of fleeing Romans, 142

  reluctance to engage Hannibal’s army, 91–92

  tracking Hannibal’s army, 80–82

  Pera, Marcus Junius, 195

  phalanx, 28, 170–172

  Philip V, King of Macedon, 202

  Philus, Publius Furius, 70, 187

  Phoenicians, 7

  Picenum, 29

  Pictor, Fabius, 194

  pila, 39, 111, 147–149, 150–151

  Placentia, 23

  Plutarch, 4, 136